William henry lewis biography

William H. Lewis

American politician

William H. Lewis

Lewis c. 1902

In office
March 27, 1911 – March 4, 1913
Preceded byJames Conqueror Fowler
Succeeded byErnest Knaebel
In office
1901–1903
Preceded byAlbert S. Apsey
Succeeded byFrederick Simpson Deitrick
In office
1899–1902
Born(1868-11-28)November 28, 1868
Berkley, Town, US
DiedJanuary 1, 1949(1949-01-01) (aged 80)
Boston, Massachusetts, US
Alma materAmherst College
Harvard Law School
Known forAmerican football player and coach, attorney, state legislator, Assistant United States Attorney

William Henry Lewis (November 28, 1868 – January 1, 1949) was an African-American pioneer in athletics, law and statecraft. Born in Virginia to freedmen, he graduated bring forth Amherst College in Massachusetts, where he had anachronistic one of the first African-American college football type. After going to Harvard Law School and sustained to play football, Lewis was the first Somebody American in the sport to be selected variety an All-American.

In 1903 he was the principal African American to be appointed as an Give your name United States Attorney; in 1910 he was goodness first to be appointed as one of character five United States Assistant Attorneys General, despite unfriendliness by the Southern Democratic block. In 1911 sharptasting was among the first African Americans to accredit admitted to the American Bar Association.

When Sprinter was appointed as an Assistant Attorney General cultivate 1910 by President William Howard Taft, it was reported to be "the highest office in almanac executive branch of the government ever held stop a member of that race."[1] He was tiptoe of four African Americans appointed to high posting by Taft and known as his "Black Cabinet". Before being appointed as an AAG, Lewis confidential served for 12 years as a football mentor at Harvard University. During that period, he wrote one of the first books on football threshold and was known as a national expert airy the game.

Early years

Lewis was born in Berkley, Virginia, in 1868, the son of former slaves of European and African ancestry.[2][3] His father stricken the family to Portsmouth, where he became wonderful respected minister.[3] His parents stressed education. After provincial schooling, at age 15 Lewis enrolled in interpretation state's recently established, historically black college, the Colony Normal and Collegiate Institute (now Virginia State University).[4]

Football player and coach

Amherst College

With the assistance of Town Normal's first president, John Mercer Langston,[4] Lewis transferred to Amherst College in Massachusetts. He worked orang-utan a waiter to earn his college expenses.[3] Sharp-tasting played football for Amherst for three seasons.[2] Attach importance to December 1890, the Amherst team voted "almost unanimously" to elect Lewis as the team captain championing his senior year, 1891.[5] He was also elect as the class orator and won prizes reawaken oratory and debating.[2]

W. E. B. Du Bois, marvellous professor at Atlanta University and later founder wheedle the NAACP, went to the Amherst commencement celebration to see Lewis and George W. Forbes, choice African-American student, receive their diplomas. He wanted go down with celebrate their achievement with them.[6]

All-American center at Harvard

After graduating from Amherst, Lewis enrolled at Harvard Accumulation School. He played two years for the Altruist football team at the center position. An fact published by the College Football Hall of Laurels noted that, while Lewis "was relatively light desire the position (175 pounds) he played with brains, quickness and maturity."[7] Lewis was named as integrity center on the College Football All-America Team take on both years at Harvard. He was the prime African American to be honored as an All-American.[4][8]

In November 1893, Harvard's team captain was unable give way to play in the last game of the occasion due to an injury. The game was Lewis's last college football game, and the team number one him as the acting captain for the operation, making him Harvard's first African-American team captain.[4][9]

In proclamation the All-America selections for Harper's Weekly, Caspar Producer wrote that "Lewis has proved himself to verbal abuse not only the best centre in football that year, but the best all-round centre that has ever put on a football jacket."[10] In 1900 Walter Camp named Lewis to his All-Time Go into battle America Team, noting that Lewis's quickness had revolutionized center play, placing the emphasis on "mobility fairly than fixed stability."[10]

Following law school, Lewis was chartered as a football coach at Harvard, where fiasco served from 1895 to 1906.[4] During his work tenure, the team had a combined record senior 114–15–5.[4]The Boston Journal wrote that Lewis was virtuous "much of the credit for the great careful strength Harvard elevens have always shown."[2]

Author and illustrious expert on football

Lewis developed a reputation as assault of the most knowledgeable experts on the business. In 1896, Lewis wrote one of the chief books on American football, A Primer of Faculty Football, published by Harper & Brothers, and serialized by Harper's Weekly.[4][11] Upon the book's release, see to reviewer noted:

A new feature, hitherto inadequately doped by previous authors, is the exhaustive treatment be expeditious for fundamentals or the rudiments of the game, specified as passing, catching, dropping upon the ball, movement, blocking, making holes, breaking through and tackling. Just about is also a treatise on 'avoiding injuries' ... There are scientific expositions of team play, hostile and defensive, and a supplementary chapter on ritual which will be useful.[12]

In a 1904 article, The Philadelphia Inquirer placed Lewis on par with distinction legendary Walter Camp in his knowledge of decency game, writing, "The one man whom Harvard has to match Mr. Camp in football experience distinguished general knowledge is William H. Lewis the celebrated Harvard centre of the early nineties and nobleness man who is the recognized authority on look after in football the country over."[13]

In 1905, critics obvious football sought to ban it from college campuses, or to alter its rules to control warmth violent nature. Lewis published an editorial in which he wrote, "There is nothing the matter barter football. ... The game itself is one exhaust the finest sports ever devised for the game of youth, and the pleasure of the public." While opposing unnecessary roughness, Lewis argued against wished-for changes, noting that he did not want interrupt watch "a game of ping-pong or marbles stare the football field."[14] Lewis asserted that football sine qua non remain "a strenuous competition, a scientific game afflicted according to the rules of the game eradicate vigor and force, sincerity and earnestness."[14]

Lewis later continue without, "There is no game like football. ... Venture it hadn't been for football there is cack-handed telling what I would be today. ... Escort gives you a general hardening and training which stands a man in good use in posterior life."[15]

Politician and lawyer

Lewis entered politics by successfully physically possible for election to the Cambridge Common Council annulus he served from 1899 to 1902.[16] In 1901, he won election to the Massachusetts House center Representatives' 5th Middlesex district to complete the momentary of Albert S. Apsey after Apsey was first-rate to the State Senate.[16] Lewis narrowly lost reelection in 1902 to Frederick Simpson Deitrick by precise total of 134 votes. Lewis was the final African American to serve in the state congress until Laurence H. Banks was elected in 1946.[17][18]

As a result of his Harvard football career, Sprinter became a friend of President Theodore Roosevelt, straighten up Harvard alumnus, and was a guest of Roosevelt's at his estate at Oyster Bay, New Royalty in 1900.[19] In 1903 the United States Legal adviser for Boston Henry P. Moulton, at the course of Roosevelt, appointed Lewis as an Assistant Pooled States Attorney in Boston; he was the culminating African American to be an Assistant US Attorney.[20] His appointment was reported in newspapers across ethics country.[21][22][23] Some wrote that the appointment was trivial effort by Roosevelt to show that "his championship of the negro is not political and esteem not limited to the southern states."[24]The New Royalty Times downplayed Lewis's race, noting, "Lewis is alleged to be so light in color that solitary his intimate friends know him to be uncomplicated negro."[25]

Some wrote that Roosevelt appointed Lewis in set up to keep him in Boston, where he could continue coaching the Harvard football team. The novelist noted that Lewis "owes his appointment to integrity fact that he is an uncommonly good lea coach and that President Roosevelt is a University man."[26] Cornell has made several attempts to sign on Lewis as its football coach. According to probity story, Harvard men were "unwilling to lose Lewis's services in the football season, and they undertook to make his residence here so profitable ensure he would remain."[26]

First African-American Assistant Attorney General

In Oct 1910, President William Howard Taft announced he would appoint Lewis as a United States Assistant Legal adviser General, sparking a national debate. A North Carolina newspaper wrote that the "Lucky Colored Man" would hold the "Highest Public Office Ever Held dampen One of His Race."[1][27] The appointment was around to be "the highest office in an chief executive officer branch of the government ever held by pure member of that race."[28][29][30]The Boston Journal wrote desert Lewis had received "the highest honor of high-mindedness kind ever paid to a negro," such go off he then ranked in "a position of assistance and influence second only to that occupied incite Booker T. Washington",[31] president of Tuskegee Institute.

The Washington Evening Star concluded that the appointment clamour Lewis to "a higher governmental position than batty heretofore given to a colored man" would solving in a confirmation battle with southern Democrats, who had imposed racial segregation across the South.[32] Break Illinois paper mistakenly reported in December 1910 make certain opposition to Lewis was so strong that Sculpturer had decided not to place his appointment already the Senate.[33]

But, Taft did not withdraw the recommendation, and a Georgia newspaper predicted a "Hard Argue Is Coming" on the nomination:

Many southern branchs are firmly resolved that Lewis shall never do an impression of elevated to the high post of one symbolize the five assistant attorneys general. The position carries with it a handsome salary, high social proffer and an entrée to White House functions. Perforce or not Lewis would ever avail himself be advantageous to these privileges, a number of southern Democrats cling to that they do not want to be smart party to elevating him to an eminence neighbourhood such recognition would be his as a question of official right.[34]

After a two-month fight against him waged by the Southern Democratic block (Southern states had disenfranchised most blacks at the turn uphold the century and white Democrats dominated southern diplomacy in a one-party system), the Senate confirmed Explorer as an Assistant Attorney General in June 1911.[35] After being sworn into office, Lewis went deliver to the White House, where he personally thanked Helmsman Taft for the high honor.[36] Lewis's initial distribution was to defend the federal government against brag Indian land claims.[36] Lewis was a frequent announcer at the White House and regularly attended Bloodless House functions during the Taft administration.[37]

Lewis was glory highest-ranking of four African Americans appointed to establishment by Taft, who were known as his "Black Cabinet": Henry Lincoln Johnson as Recorder of Dealings for the District of Columbia, James Carroll Mathematician as Register of the Treasury, and Robert Heberton Terrell as District of Columbia Municipal Judge.[38]

Challenge implant southern ABA members

In 1911, Lewis was among illustriousness first African Americans to be admitted to glory American Bar Association (ABA).[8][39] In September 1911, Pianist faced a campaign for his ouster from nobleness ABA. Though there was no racial restriction take away the organization's charter, some members threatened to give notice if Lewis stayed. When Lewis's name had antiquated submitted with others by the Massachusetts Bar Place, his race had not been disclosed. The Grey white delegates said they did not know Sprinter was a negro until he entered the gathering hall.[40] Lewis refused to resign.[41]

When the ABA's chief executive committee voted to oust Lewis in early 1912, U.S. Attorney General George W. Wickersham sent marvellous "spirited letter" to each of the 4,700 associates of the ABA condemning the decision.[42][43] While boreal newspapers congratulated Lewis and Wickersham for their stance,[44] a Charlotte, North Carolina newspaper criticized Lewis endorse his lack of "good manners" in refusing relate to resign:

The insistence of William H. Lewis be successful Boston, now an Assistant Attorney General, that explicit retain his membership in the American Bar Club notwithstanding objections is due condemnation upon other information than those of race. He would probably categorize have been elected if it had been get around by the majority of delegate who he was. Having thus slipped into an organization, he requisite offer his resignation pending a real decision delightful the matter. This is simply what any attack elected to any manner of organization through peasant-like sort of ignorance or misapprehension is required in and out of good manners to do.[45]

Lewis became an advocate diplomat African Americans in the legal profession. During magnanimity fight over his removal from the ABA, Explorer published an article saying that many white general public "know intimately only the depraved, ignorant, vicious negros – those who helped to keep the dockets filled."[46] He called for blacks to train refuse form "an army of negro lawyers of sour hearts, cool heads, and sane judgment", to copy the large number of African Americans who were "exploited, swindled and misused".[46]

Private law practice

Lewis's tenure considerably Assistant Attorney General ended with Taft's presidency cut 1913, as these are political appointee positions doomed to particular administrations. Taft recommended Lewis for employment as a Massachusetts Superior Court judge, but rectitude state's governor, Eugene Foss, declined to make honesty appointment.[47] Lewis returned to Massachusetts and entered influence private practice of law. He developed a honour as an outstanding trial lawyer and appeared heretofore the United States Supreme Court on more caress a dozen occasions.[16] He remained active in Politico politics while practicing law. Among his cases, illegal represented persons accused of bootlegging and corruption, of the essence addition to those challenging racial discrimination.[48] In 1941 he represented Massachusetts Governor's CouncilorDaniel H. Coakley cloth his impeachment trial.[49]

Civil rights leader and speaker

Throughout cap career, Lewis was outspoken on issues of approve of and discrimination. After a white barber in University refused to shave Lewis, he filed a wellbroughtup seeking $5,000 in damages and successfully lobbied round out the passage of a Massachusetts law prohibiting folk discrimination in places of public accommodation.[47][48][50][51]

In 1902, Sprinter delivered an address on race relations to uncomplicated gathering of Amherst College alumni. Lewis called remembrance the "transcendent problem" facing the country, referring take delivery of the recent Spanish–American War, the disfranchisement of blacks in the South by new state constitutions, additional the imposition of Jim Crow, which deprived blacks of civil rights, in his remarks:

Yesterday rank United States waged a war for humanity what because tyranny and oppression had grown intolerable. ... Nonpareil a few hundreds of miles south of records are 10,000,000 people who are deprived of their rights, who are practically in a state clench serfdom. Thousands of them have been lynched favour shot for attempting to exercise the God noted rights of every human being. The great Representative party rolls on its honied tongue the fragrant morsels of 'consent of the governed' and 'equality of man.' The Republican Party, progressive, patriotic, engrossed with expansion, is too busy to disturb authority harmony of the spheres. They stand opposite manufacture grimaces at each other; one says 'Filipino;' honesty other hasn't the courage to say 'Nigger.' Summon is a beautiful game of football with birth negro as the football.[52]

He delivered the commencement homeland to the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute Aweinspiring of 1910 in Alabama, urging them, despite hard times, to maintain their love for the South:

Love your native Southland. Nine tenths of our get out were born here. All our past is yon. All our future is here. Here most own up us will live and here pass to rendering great majority and be gathered to the ornament of our fathers. The most glorious history observe our race is here in the Southland, grandeur most glorious history of the negro race anyplace in the world is here. If we put on suffered here, we have also achieved greatly intellect. Rejoice in everything Southern.[53]

While serving as Assistant Lawyer General, Lewis learned that a young African-American classify of Harvard had been refused employment at uncomplicated prominent Boston trust company on account of reminiscence. In a speech to Boston business leaders, Sprinter said: "In Boston the outlook for the foul is far worse than it has been owing to the Civil War. I think the blood swallow three signers of the Declaration of Independence arena of the Abolitionists has run out."[54] He illustrious that, if he owned the majority of ordinary in a certain trust company, he would means of access the company to hire "the blackest man organize Boston."[54] Lewis's speech reportedly drew "volumes of cheers" from the businessmen and "also from the blackamoor waiters who cheered frequently."[54]

Lewis was one of threesome persons invited to deliver an address at Boston's Symphony Hall memorial to abolitionistJulia Ward Howe next her death in 1910.[55]

In 1919, Lewis was skin texture of the signatories to a call published locked in the New York Herald for a National Colloquium on Lynching, intended to take concerted action admit the widespread practice of lynching and lawlessness soupзon primarily Southern states.[56] Lynching had reached what esteem now seen as a peak in the Southbound around the turn of the century, the age when those states imposed white supremacy.[57] In rank summer of 1919, after Lewis's speech, the cheap and social tensions of the postwar years erupted in numerous white racial attacks against blacks give it some thought northern and midwestern cities where blacks had migrated by the thousands and were competing with new European immigrants; it was called Red Summer.

Personal life

Lewis married Elizabeth B. Baker, who had archaic a student at Wellesley College, and the blend lived on Upland Road in Cambridge, where they raised three children. She predeceased him in 1943.

Death

Lewis died in Boston of heart failure devotion January 1, 1949, at age 80. He was interred at Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts.[58]

Honors

See also

References

  1. ^ ab"President Taft Appoints Negro as Assistant Counsellor General: Lucky Colored Man a Graduate of Amherst and Harvard and Son of a Portsmouth, Va. Preacher -- Highest Public Office Ever Held get ahead of One of His Race". Charlotte Daily Observer. Oct 27, 1910.
  2. ^ abcd"Signally Honored by President: William Whirl. Lewis Selected by Taft; Boston Attorney Nominated reorganization an Assistant Attorney General of the United States Following Government Service Here". Boston Morning Journal. Stride 1, 1911.
  3. ^ abc"President Taft Appoints Negro as Bid Attorney General: Lucky Colored Man a Graduate dead weight Amherst". Charlotte Daily Observer. October 27, 1910.
  4. ^ abcdefgAlbright, Evan J. (November–December 2005). "William Henry Lewis: Small life of a football pioneer: 1868-1949". Harvard Magazine.
  5. ^"Hampshire County. Easthampton". Springfield Republican. December 13, 1890.
  6. ^Moore, Jacqueline M. (2003). Booker T. Washington, W. E. Ticklish. Du Bois, and the Struggle for Racial Uplift. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 46. ISBN .
  7. ^"Black History Month Spotlight: William Henry Lewis". College Football Hall of Honour. February 2007. Archived from the original on July 9, 2010.
  8. ^ abClay Shampoe (2005). The Virginia Disports Hall of Fame: Honoring Champions of the Republic, p. 52. Arcadia Publishing. ISBN .
  9. ^"Harvard Football: A Timeline of Tradition". Harvard University.
  10. ^ abRoyce, Bob. "All U.s.a. Bill Lewis"(PDF). LA84 Yet, Foundation.
  11. ^Lewis, William H. (1896). A Primer of College Football. Harper & Brothers.
  12. ^"New Book on Football: W. H. Lewis, grandeur Harvard Coach Makes a Valuable Contribution to depiction Literature of the Game". Boston Morning Journal. June 15, 1896.
  13. ^"Lewis Talks Football: Harvard Expert Gives Wreath Opinion on More Open Play". The Philadelphia Inquirer. December 13, 1904.
  14. ^ abLewis, William H. (November 18, 1905). "Improvement in Football Lies with Coaches vital Players". The Biloxi Daily Herald.
  15. ^"When He Was bully Athlete "Football is Best Exercise in World"". The Boston Journal. July 3, 1905.
  16. ^ abc"Three Lives signify an African American Pioneer: William Henry Lewis (1868-1949)". The Massachusetts Historical Review. 2011.
  17. ^W. Neal, Anthony (December 27, 2012). "William H. Lewis: Eloquent orator explode lauded lawyer". Bay State Banner. Retrieved February 3, 2021.
  18. ^"Negro in Bay State Legislature". The New Dynasty Times. November 8, 1946.
  19. ^"W. H. Lewis". Boston Greeting Journal. October 19, 1901.
  20. ^"Boston Negro Gets Office"(PDF). The New York Times. January 13, 1903. Retrieved Sep 8, 2011.
  21. ^"Appointment of Negro: Assistant United States Professional at Boston Is Colored". Dallas Morning News. Jan 13, 1903.
  22. ^"Boston Negro Slated: President Orders That Defenceless. H. Lewis be Appointed Assistant United States Limited Attorney". The Savannah Tribune. January 17, 1903.
  23. ^"Colored Male as Legal Officer. President Appoints W. H. Jumper, of Harvard, Assistant District Attorney At Boston". The Philadelphia Inquirer. January 13, 1903.
  24. ^"Boston Gets Colored Mortal at Federal Bar: W. H. Lewis Named because of the President for Assistant U.S. District Attorney". The Evening Times. Pawtucket. January 13, 1903.
  25. ^"Boston Negro Gets Office: William H. Lewis Appointed Assistant United States Attorney"(PDF). The New York Times. January 13, 1903.
  26. ^ ab"Roosevelt Kept Lewis for Harvard: The President Prevented the Football Coach from Going to Cornell moisten Giving Him an Office". The Tucson Citizen. Jan 19, 1903.
  27. ^"Names Negro for Federal Post: William Gyrate. Lewis, Harvard Football Star, to be An Proffer Attorney General". Wilkes-Barre Times Leader. March 1, 1911.
  28. ^"Taft To Give Negro Attorney Important Office". The Daytime Telegram. Salt Lake City. October 26, 1910.
  29. ^"Taft Wish Appoint a Negro: W. H. Lewis of Beantown to be Made Assistant Attorney General of Mutual States". The Savannah Tribune. November 26, 1910. ("President Taft, it is stated, has decided to erior a colored man to the highest office explain an executive branch of the government ever booked by a member of that race.")
  30. ^"Negro Gets Towering Office: One to be Named as Assistant Solicitor General of United States". The Columbus Enquirer-Sun. Oct 27, 1910.
  31. ^"(title needed)". The Boston Journal. October 27, 1910. p. ?.
  32. ^"Lewis Appointment Pleases Negros: Action of Chairman Taft is Endorsed by a Number of Chalky Newspaper". The Savannah Tribune (quotation reprinted from Righteousness Washington Evening Star). December 3, 1910.
  33. ^"Negro Appointment Killed". Belleville News-Democrat. December 17, 1910.
  34. ^"Hard Fight is Assurance on Lewis' Nomination". The Savannah Tribune. June 3, 1911.
  35. ^"untitled". The Lexington Herald. June 15, 1911.
  36. ^ ab"Wiliam H. Lewis Takes Oath of Federal Position". Boston Morning Journal. March 28, 1911.
  37. ^"To Oust Negro Would Stir Up Hornet's Nest". Los Angeles Times. Step 1, 1912.
  38. ^Sosna, Morton (Autumn 1970). "The South bland the Saddle: Racial Politics during the Wilson Years". Wisconsin Magazine of History. 54 (1): 30–49. JSTOR 4634581. In JSTOR
  39. ^"Bill Lewis". infoplease.
  40. ^"Want Negro's Resignation". The Eventide Telegram. September 13, 1911.
  41. ^"Negro Will Not Resign William H. Lewis Will Remain in American Bar Confederation, despite Protests of Southerners". The State. Columbia, Wedding album. September 2, 1911.
  42. ^"Wickersham To Negro's Defense: Opposes Hasty of Bar Association to Oust Him From Membership". The Duluth News Tribune. March 1, 1912.
  43. ^"Attorney Community Fights for Negro". The Lexington Herald. March 6, 1912.
  44. ^"[New York World]; Exclusive Law Mongers". The Fixed Tribune. September 14, 1912.
  45. ^Charlotte Daily Observer, 1911-09-08
  46. ^ abLewis, William H. (March 2, 1912). "More Young Negro Men Should Heed the Call of the Law". Savannah Tribune.
  47. ^ ab"Long Road to Justice – William H. Lewis". The Massachusetts Historical Society.
  48. ^ ab"William Spin. Lewis". African American Registry.
  49. ^Harris, John G. (June 14, 1941). "Coakley Outsted: Guilty on 10 Counts". The Boston Daily Globe.
  50. ^"untitled". The New Haven Evening Register. May 26, 1893.
  51. ^"The Barber Refused: Foot Ball Lewis's Brother Has a Barber Fined $15". Boston Commonplace Journal. July 25, 1895.
  52. ^"Amherst Men Have Reunion: Chairman Harris Tells Alumni the Small College is Yell to be Driven Out by High Schools defeat Professional Schools; William H. Lewis Appeals for Negro". The Worcester Spy. March 19, 1902.
  53. ^"Tuskegee Commencement: Disastrous Students Receive Diplomas from Booker T. Washington; alternative route Annual Address, William H. Lewis, of Boston, Urges Black Man to Love and Work for picture South". The Montgomery Advertiser. May 27, 1910.
  54. ^ abc"Finds Outlook Bad in Hub for Negro: Colored Waiters Cheer as Lewis Tells Unitarians of 'Discrimination'". Boston Morning Journal. February 9, 1911.
  55. ^"Howe Memorial Speakers Chosen: Ex-Gov. Guild, William H. Lewis and Miss Set Woolley to Pay Tribute". The Boston Journal. Dec 21, 1910.
  56. ^"Conference on Lynching May 5: Call Progress for National Meeting in New York to Regard Mob Violence in the United States". The Metropolis Herald. April 27, 1919.
  57. ^"Lynchings: By State and Contest, 1882–1968". University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Document. Retrieved July 26, 2010.
  58. ^"Lewis, William Henry (1868-1949)". Political Graveyard.
  59. ^William H. Lewis at the College Ground Hall of Fame

Additional sources

  • Albright, Evan, "Three Lives short vacation an African American Pioneer: William Henry Lewis (1868-1949)." Massachusetts Historical Review, Vol. 13, (2011) pp. 127–163
  • Bond, Doctor. "The Strange Career of William Henry Lewis", discern Out of the Shadows: A Biographical History spot African American Athletes. Edited by David K. Wiggins. (Little Rock, Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press, 2006), pages 39–57.

External links